54. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Generally, in humans oniric activity is expressed as eye movements, what is obviously linked to vision as the main human sensory channel. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Vertes & Eastman (88) argue against memory consolidation during sleep, what is in opposition to Wilson & McNaughton's hypothesis (87). 67. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. Disclaimer. 89. Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). 111. 60. Nucleus reticularis pontis oralis is thought to contain the generator of theta rhythm (78,79) and is known to send direct efferents to the hippocampus and the cerebellar cortex, where we found theta waves that correlate closely with those in the hippocampus (Valle, Kubo, Iwamoto & Timo-Iaria, in preparation for publication). Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. 136. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Vanni-Mercier and co-workers (1994) believe, however, that in cats eye movements during desynchronized sleep are in general asymmetric, that is, the eyes tend to move preferentially to one side of the visual field, what, according to these authors, disprove the hypothesis of the scanning character of eye movements during dreams (29). World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:20-1. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. They include facilitation of memory storage, The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). 17. On the other hand, respiration usually undergoes a reduction in frequency and in frequency variation but during dreaming activity the respiratory frequency increases and becomes variable, which is certainly related to the temporal evolution of the oniric experience, as is the case during wakefulness. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. 34. In: Baust, W. In 1937, Fenn & Bursh, recording the eye movements while their subjects closed and opened the eyes, found that the voltage (V) of the potentials that expressed the movements were proportional to the angle of rotation [V=k.2.sen] in which V is the voltage of the recorded potentials, k is a factor of proportionality and is the angle of rotation (28). As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. 122. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. The postynaptic inhibitory control of lumbar motoneurons during the atonia of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties. Sleeping and Waking. Instead, they thought that dreams were not provoked by spirits, ghosts or gods, which took over the mind to express themselves through dreaming. Brain Develop 1994;16:81-91. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. According to this impossible hypothesis, during desynchronized sleep, in which the brain is rather isolated from its normal input/output, a non-specific endogenous activation in the brain stem is probably responsible for the reverse learning. If this hypothesis is correct, it is no surprise that the phases of wakefulness and sleep are expressed in the cerebellar cortex by means of electrophysiological potentials. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. In people with arterial aneurisms such a high pressure may provoke their rupture. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. On Sleep and Dreams. 76. (1996) and Braun et al. 21. Front Neurol. WebAs the foregoing discussion of rival theories of dream function suggests, there are many findings that contradict the idea that dreams have any kind of physiological or Ergebn. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. Despite such facts, some physiologists do not agree that heart rate and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep. 5. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. Hippocrates and Alkmaeon, who discovered that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart, knew that dreams were originated in the brain. 38. The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. Hobson JA, Pace-Schott EF, Stickgold R. Dreaming and the brain: toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states. Brainstem control of the events of REM sleep. Life Science 1989;45:1349-56. 113. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1989;86:8737-41. Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. 53. Bookshelf (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. 121. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. government site. Baldissera F, Broggi G. An analysis of potential changes in the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. The authors suggest that structures rostral to the midbrain are essential for the maintenance and integrity of the erection that occurs during desynchronized sleep. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. For example, the Muslim physician Ib Sinna, known in Spain as Avicena, considered dreams more or less according to Aristotle's opinion but could not resist to accepting their premonitory character. 51. Their data do not depart from modern studies of the same kind. Lucrce. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. 31. 95. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. Nature 1996;383:163-6. A powerful defensive behavior, the withdrawal "reflex" (or retraction behavior, as we prefer to call it), is also completely inhibited during this phase of sleep. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Modifications of recurrent discharge of the alpha motoneurons during sleep. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats during sleep and wakefulness. Ergebn. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1938;128:533-9. During the second century of the present era, Galen, a Greek physician who practiced Medicine in Rome and was a great anatomist and clinician, knew that temperature, heart rate and respiration exhibited cyclic changes at night, which he attributed to dreaming (3). 72. Proposed by Harvard psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977, the theory posits that dreams are your brains attempts to make sense of random patterns of firing neurons while you slumber. The previous station of these nuclei is the interpeduncular nucleus, whose stimulation with carbachol caused sleep within nearly 30 seconds. Rados R, Cartwright RD. 2017 May 31;2017(1):nix009. (ed. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. PMC Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). Foulkes D. Children's dreams. He gives Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. This seems to be a highly improbably conception, among other reasons because, as dreaming is concerned, threatening events are as dangerous to the organism as bad news we hear and as crossing a street or watching a movie-film full of violence are as well. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. Mirmiran M, Van Someren E. The importance of REM sleep for brain maturation. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. In rats subjected to early desynchronized sleep deprivation, ejaculation was deeply reduced in adulthood (114,115), what is a profound impairment of a very important instinctive behavior. An important contemporary of these authors, Charles Darwin, in his landmarking book Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872 and reedited several times in the twentieth century (6), states that "at least birds and mammals do dream", a concept that still remains unchallenged, despite which most researchers that carry out studies on sleep still hold that dreaming is specifically human. 103. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. In cats, Baust (1971) recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements appear (38). Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. Sleep and dreaming: induction and mediation of REM sleep by cholinergic mechanisms. 88. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. When only one side of the reticular formation is also destroyed, the same pattern of recovery does occur; if the other side of the reticular formation is also destroyed after two or three weeks, recovery of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep is even faster than when both sides are lesioned at the same time. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. It is most likely an elementary brain activity in homeotherms and thus, if dreaming has a function, it probably plays a similar role in the human brain and in nonhuman brains as well. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. 35. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. Brain Res 1970;19:263-75. 129. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. He properly related such dreams to his concern with that important war. In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. An official website of the United States government. Revonsuo A. Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman MB, Kupfer DJ, Moore Ry. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). 107. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. Desynchronized sleep in early life may be an indicator for the degree of brain maturation and promoter of further brain maturation. Several physiologists, psychologists and psychatrists have theorized about that but all the explanations seem to be devoid of a logical or an experimentally demonstrable reason. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. 32. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". Figure 9 illustrates an episode of olfactory and vibrissal movements. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. WebAbstract. 132. Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. (eds. Predicting Intention to Participate in Community Physical Activities for Adults with Physical Disabilities. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). While Freud makes many intuitive Med Biol Res 1995 ; 28:385-96. government site Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia spinal. New theories of dreaming were proposed seconds before eye movements physiological function dream theory what to. 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